Applied Science and Biotechnology Journal for Advanced Research

1. Introduction

Wildfires are increasingly devastating because of a rise in occurrences, along with a steady increase in their severity, size, and duration over the past two decades. This is influenced by three main elements: climate change, past fire suppression in U.S. forest management, and the growth of the wildland-urban interface (WUI), defined as “the area of transition between undeveloped land and human development.” Consequently, in the past ten years, eight of California's ten biggest wildfires have occurred.

Likewise, outside of a U.S. context, wildfires in the European Union scorched nearly 2 million acres in 2022, roughly 2.5 times the severe wildfires that have well-known environmental and economic impacts. Wildfires of high severity lead to lasting losses of species and ecosystems31, and they also significantly increase greenhouse gas emissions. The California Camp Fire of 2018 resulted in 85 fatalities, obliterated more than 18,000 buildings, and caused $19 billion (adjusted for inflation) in damages. (Atkinson et al., 2014).

Currently, federal fire suppression expenses exceed $2.5 billion annually, alongside costs shouldered by state, local, and Tribal authorities. The overall economic impact of wildfire damages across the country is estimated to be “tens to hundreds of billions of dollars” each year. Greater focus is now directed toward the social implications of wildfires on public health. From 2007 to 2018, 99.5% of California’s residents resided in a county that experienced at least one smoke wave or persistent smoke event. Currently, a study from Stanford University indicates that PM2.5 pollution specifically from wildfires has risen to a level that it has undone decades of improvements in air quality in the U.S. achieved through the Clean Air Act. (Appel et al. 2021).

The main health risk from wildfires is air pollution caused by smoke. Smoke from wildfires consists of thousands of substances, such as particulate matter (PM), carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, complex hydrocarbons, and irritating gases (Ahangar et al, 2022). These substances inflict different degrees of harm on human health, influenced by the type of material burned and its reactions with atmospheric chemical compounds (Gettleman et al. 2022).

the stress of evacuation, and the stress of recovery, (Reid et al 2016). Less attention has focused on the effects of smoke on mental health and well-being. Exploring this relationship is even more pertinent considering the growing body of research documenting the negative effects of air pollution on mental health, including depression, anxiety, suicide, and psychological distress, (Adetona et al 2016).

Objectives of the Study

1. To access the long-term psychological impacts of repeated wildfire displacement on affected individuals and communities.
2. To evaluate the public health challenges faced by displaced populations resulting to mental health.

Research questions

1. What are the long-term psychological impacts of repeated wildfire displacement on affected individuals and communities?
2. What are the public health challenges faced by displaced populations resulting to mental health?

3. Literature Review

Conceptualising California Wildfire

The wildfire crisis in California is not just an environmental disaster but a significant public health emergency with immediate and long-term consequences.As of Jan. 9, 2025 multiple majorwildfires have burned more than 28,000 acres in California, killing at least five people and putting some 130,000 residents under evacuation orders. The death toll is expected to rise as rescue workers search through the rubble. ThePalisades Fire(the largest one), has already consumed 17,234acres in Los Angeles County, (Miller et al 2020). These numbers are alarming, especially considering the typical wildfire season hasn’t even begun, (Jaffe et a, 2012). The most immediate concern for health journalists covering this crisis is the impact of wildfire smoke on human health. According to Miller et al, (2020). Wildfire smoke is a complex mixture of pollutants, with particulate matter measuring 2.5 micrometers or smaller (PM2.5) being particularly hazardous, according to the U.S.Environmental Protection Agency.

The increasing frequency and intensity of wildfires in California are closelylinked to climate change, (Khreis et al 2017).

which includes higher levels of PAHs and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) compared to ambient air pollution. Several of these components, such as benzo(a)pyrene, benzene, and formaldehyde, are known carcinogens (Wilkins et al, 2018). Exposure to VOCs has also been linked to wheezing in children. Recurrent wildfire smoke exposure may therefore contribute to an increased lifetime cancer risk, particularly in children. Furthermore, certain developmental windows may be especially critical. For example, exposure to PM2.5 during the second trimester of pregnancy has been associated with increases in childhood blood pressure, highlighting the importance of timing in determining health outcomes, (Khreis et al., 2017).

Animal studies reinforce these concerns. Rhesus monkeys exposed to wildfire smoke during infancy demonstrated long-term decreases in lung function and altered inflammatory markers in adolescence, with some sex-dependent variations (Adetona et al, 2016). This underscores the potential for lifelong respiratory and immune system impacts from early-life smoke exposure. Similarly, environmental chemicals from PM exposure may disrupt lung development in utero and throughout childhood, with some effects only becoming apparent years later, (Bennett et al, 2020). Wildfire particulate matter is compositionally different from typical ambient air pollution in the USA, closely resembling biomass smoke. Studies conducted during wildfire events in Southern California revealed that organic carbon compounds comprised a higher proportion of PM2.5 compared to non-wildfire events, aligning more closely with biomass smoke (Nhung et al , 2017). Research on biomass burning in developing countries provides insight into potential health effects, as children exposed to household biomass smoke consistently exhibit higher rates of lower respiratory infections, pneumonia, and adverse birth outcomes (Adetona et al 2017). These findings are relevant to understanding wildfire smoke exposure, given the compositional similarities between wildfire and biomass smoke, despite differences in chronic exposure profiles.

Children are uniquely vulnerable to the health effects of wildfire smoke due to their developing systems and higher minute ventilation per kilogram of body weight compared to adults. Numerous studies have consistently demonstrated a link between wildfire smoke exposure and increased pediatric respiratory issues.

Mechanisms can cross between multiple levels and can influence mental health and wellbeing differently, based on cumulative and intersectional experiences. The interplay and interaction between these mechanisms may be complex and vary in different communities, people, and situations.

Individual level mechanisms include physiological and physical mechanisms such as diminished sleep quantity and quality changes in cerebral perfusion, physical symptoms from the smoke, food insecurity and reductions in outdoor physical activity, (Miller et al , 2020). The individual level also includes psychological and emotional mechanisms, such as previous negative physical harms from the smoke, perceived risk of danger, and negative reminders from smoke, (Bennett et al, 2017).

These are nested in social and community network factors including isolation from people and reduced summertime outdoor activity brought on by smoke the potential for family stress and violence that may occur and risk communications from authorities that may be limited or inadequate, (Reid et al, 2016). The individual level and social and community level factors are placed in the context of living and working conditions such as home evacuations school relocations and reductions in access to one’s livelihood particularly for outdoor workers and people in the recreation and tourism industries, (Oliveira et al, 2019).

All of this occurs in the ecological context of increasing and possibly yearly, repeated and prolonged smoke events and the feeling of a loss of nature that occurs, (Nhung et al, 2017). As authors have noted, it is challenging to tease out the mental health impact of exposure to wildfire smoke from the impact of evacuation and traumatic experiences such as an approaching fire front and lack of information or poor communication from government agencies, (Miller et al, 2020). Tough these proposed pathways arose from our review they must be considered preliminary and hypothetical.

Wildfires can induce a wide range of mental health issues, including acute stress, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety, depression, and substance abuse. These effects are particularly pronounced in individuals directly affected by the fires, such as evacuees, first responders, and those who lose their homes or loved ones.

Rebuilding homes, dealing with insurance claims, and recovering livelihoods are prolonged stressors that can exacerbate pre-existing mental health conditions or give rise to new ones. This prolonged disruption to daily life is a significant driver of anxiety and depression. Children, adolescents, and elderly individuals are particularly vulnerable, as they often lack the resources or coping mechanisms to manage stress (Abatzoglou & Williams, 2016) The enduring psychological distress following wildfires underscores the critical need for targeted mental health interventions and support systems to assist affected individuals, particularly vulnerable populations such as children, adolescents, and the elderly. Vulnerable Populations Wildfires disproportionately impact certain populations, leading to significant mental health challenges. Children and adolescents exposed to such disasters may experience lasting psychological effects, including developmental delays and behavioural issues. This group is known for their high prevalence of experience traumatic disorder following a disaster (Marthoenis et al., 2019, 2022). Elderly individuals often face physical and cognitive challenges that exacerbate their vulnerability during and after wildfires. Low-income communities, with limited access to healthcare and resources, find it harder to recover and manage mental health challenges. First responders, such as firefighters, police officers, and emergency medical personnel, are at high risk for PTSD and burnout due to repeated exposure to traumatic events, (Kaulfus et al 2017),. Additionally, pregnant women are at risk of preterm birth, low birth weight, and stillbirth, exacerbated by heat stress from wildfires causing heat exhaustion or heat stroke. Individuals who become homeless or lose their properties and have nowhere to stay are at heightened risk for mental health issues, including anxiety, depression, and PTSD, (Abatzoglou & Williams, 2016) The loss of a home and the uncertainty of housing can lead to increased stress and a sense of instability, further exacerbating mental health challenges. These profound mental health challenges faced by vulnerable populations highlight the urgent need for targeted interventions and support systems to aid their recovery and resilience, and to plan for better preparation in the future, (.Eisenman & Lindsay, 2022), The January 2025 Southern California wildfires serve as a stark reminder of the complex interplay between environmental disasters and mental health.

Table 4.1.3: Length of Residents of Participants

Table 4.1.3 shows that participants with 1 to 10 years residential history are 66 (78.6%), those with residential history for 10 years to 20 years were 15 (17.9%) and those with residential history from 21 years and above are 3 (3.6%). Therefore, there are more participants with 1-10 years in marriage.

Table 4.1.4: Marital Status of Participants

Table 4.1.7 shows that married participants are 80 (85%) and single parents’ participants are 15 (16%). Therefore, there are more married respondents than single respondents.

Table 4.1.5: Number of Children of Participants

Table 4.1.5 shows that participants with 1-2 number of children are 40 (47.6%), those with 3-4 children are 40. (47.6%) and participants with 5 children and above are 4 (4.8%). Therefore, there are more participants having 1-4 children.

Table 4.1.6: Educational Background of Participants

Table 4.1.5 shows that participants with high school attainment are 34 (37.8%), those with B. Sc educational qualifications are 50 (.55.6%) and those with M. Sc educational qualification are 6 (6.7%). Therefore, there are more participants with B,Sc educational qualifications.

4.2 Data Analysis Based on Research Questions

Table 4.2.1: Long-Term Psychological Impacts of Repeated Wildfire Displacement on Affected Individuals and Communities

The data in Table 4.2.2 showed the mean and standard deviation of respondents on coping strategies for mental health challenge by wildfire displaced persons. Given the 2.50 benchmark for acceptance, items 7-12 of the questionnaire had mean above the benchmark indicating that there is evident coping strategies for mental health challenge by wildfire displaced persons. In summary, respondents agreed that provision free or low-cost counseling, therapy, and crisis intervention programs in affected areas will help as coping strategy with mean score of 2.9, that creating spaces for displaced individuals to share experiences and coping strategies, fostering a sense of belonging and collective healing with mean score of 2.7, that training healthcare providers, social workers, and community leaders to understand and address trauma-related issues effectively with mean score of 3.2, that expanding access to mental health support through virtual platforms, especially for displaced persons in remote or temporary locations with mean score of 3.0, that promoting practices like meditation, yoga, and relaxation techniques to help individuals manage anxiety and stress with mean score of 3.0 and that providing training to improve self-efficacy and reduce anxiety about future wildfire risks,

The result agreed with existing studies as studies stated that the enduring psychological distress following wildfires underscores the critical need for targeted mental health interventions and support systems to assist affected individuals, particularly vulnerable populations such as children, adolescents, and the elderly. Vulnerable Populations Wildfires disproportionately impact certain populations, leading to significant mental health challenges. Children and adolescents exposed to such disasters may experience lasting psychological effects, including developmental delays and behavioural issues. This group is known for their high prevalence of experience traumatic disorder following a disaster (Marthoenis et al., 2019, 2022).

6. Conclusion

The study concluded that consistent California wildfire had significant public health issues especially mental health. Reviewed studies highlighted that the risk of losing a home, the depression of damage homes and schools have impact on the mental health of the victims. Specifically, the study revealed that some effective coping strategies for individuals affected by the California wildfires include the provision of free or low-cost counseling, therapy, and crisis intervention programs in affected areas. Additionally, creating safe spaces where displaced individuals can share experiences and coping strategies fosters a sense of belonging and collective healing. Training healthcare providers, social workers, and community leaders to understand and address trauma-related issues effectively is also a crucial step. These and other strategies play a significant role in rehabilitating wildfire victims and supporting their mental health recovery

Recommendations

As California faces an uncertain future with climate change, accurate and responsible reporting on the health impacts of wildfires will be more important than ever. When reporting on this ongoing crisis, consider the following:

• Include practical advice onhow people can protect themselves from smoke exposure, such as using air purifiers, and wearing appropriate masks when outdoors. While staying indoors may lessen exposure, it does not eliminate risk.

7. Gettelman, A., M.J. Mills, D.E. Kinnison, R.R. Garcia, A.K. Smith, D.R. Marsh, S. Tilmes, F. Vitt, C.G. Bardeen, J. McInerny, H.-L. Liu, S.C. Solomon, L.M. Polvani, L.K. Emmons, J.-F. Lamarque, J.H. Richter, A.S. Glanville, J.T. Bacmeister, A.S. Phil lips, R.B. Neale, I.R. Simpson, A.K. DuVivier, A. Hodzic, & W.J. Randel. (2019). The whole atmosphere community climate model version 6 (WACCM6)., 12380–12403.

8. Grell, G.A., & D. Devenyi. (2022). A generalized approach to parameterizing convection combining ensemble and data assimilation techniques. Geophysical Research Letters, 29.

9. Grennan G.K, Withers M.C, & Ramanathan D. S, et al. (2023) Differences in interference processing and frontal brain function with climate trauma from California’s deadliest wildfire. PLOS Climate, 2(1), e0000125.

10. Hong, S.Y., Y. Noh, & J. Dudhia. (2016). A new vertical diffusion package with an explicit treatment of entrainment processes. Monthly Weather Review, 134, 2318–2341.

11. Jiang, X., C. Wiedinmyer, & A.G. Carlton. (2022). Aerosols from fires: An examination of the efects on ozone photochemistry in the Western United States. Environmental Science and Technology, 46, 442–460.

12. Kaulfus AS, Nair U, Jafe D, Christopher SA, & Goodrick S. (2017). Biomass burning smoke climatology of the United States: Implications for particulate matter air quality. Environ Science Technology, 51(20), 11731–41. https://doi.org/ 10.1021/acs.est.7b03292

13. Marthoenis M, Nirwana A and Fathiariani L (2019) Prevalence and determinants of posttraumatic stress in adolescents following an earthquake. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 61(5), 526.

14. Marthoenis, Meutia I, & Sofyan H, et al. (2018) Exposure to traumatic events and PTSD in a postconflict and disaster-prone area. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 23(2), 128–139.

15. Marthoenis. N. (2024) The January 2025 Southern California Wildfires: Public mental health impacts and a call to action 3 (X).